Lược sử các lý thuyết Hướng nghiệp

When using this theory, considerable attention is given to how to classify these characteristics, how to measure them in some objective way, and finally, how to make a direct relationship between the characteristics of the individual and the characteristics of an occupation or job.

Parsons’ theory 

Holland

Based on Frank Parson concept:  know self; know work; make match.

Holland model is the most widely used T/F inventory in the world

• Usually a formal assessment (proven reliability & validity)
• Focus on the goal and the plan
• Used most frequently in K-12 education; early post secondary years
• Often administered in K-12 in a group setting.
• Any person who would benefit from learning about interest, skills, values & relation to occupations.  
• A starting point to start talking about themselves.    
• TF tools are used to measure:  Interests, Skills, Values, Personality.   
• Initially our focus was on interests and skills.  

Super’s latest contribution to the field (Brown, 2002) was his Archway of Career Determinants. In this graphic (see Figure 3.5) he attempted to summarize his life’s work.

Gottfredson’s Theory

• Importance of life roles, self concept, values, and stage of life  impacts our career across our life span.  
• Career development tasks:  Growth, Exploration, Establishment, disengagement. 
• Career Rainbow.  Introduced importance of self concept, and values as a part of career decisions
• Focus on self efficacy/self concept in relation to career choice.
• Importance of Values in career decision making (Duane Brown specialized in values)
• Took a “developmental” perspective (people will engage in different career tasks throughout their life)

• The impact on heredity, environment, & learning exp on career choice or development.    
• Focus on learning & experiences – creating a more satisfying environment for self – less tied to formal assessment (more structured questions).  Importance of role models & mentoring

Four Factors influence Career Decision Making:

1. genetic endowment, i.e. race, sex, intelligence and special abilities
2. environmental conditions and events, e.g. family experience and training   opportunities
3. learning experiences, e.g. instrumental and associative learning
4. task approach skills, e.g. learning skills.

Three types of consequences arise from these four influences:

• self-observation generalisations, e.g. I’m good at English
• task approach skills, e.g. seeking information about work
• actions, e.g. applying for a course of study.

Nancy K. Schlossberg (1989) describes transition as an event (e.g., getting a job or being promoted) or nonevent (e.g., not getting the job or promotion)that result in a change of roles, routines, or relationships. She proposed the 4-S model to describe the four parts to transition:

• Situation – a transition is triggered by a situation
• Self – the individual copes with transition using their strengths and experiences
• Supports – the people and resources available to help deal with transitions
• Strategy – a plan to get through and past the transition

• Being comfortable with uncertainty
• Thinking differently about the goal/setting and planning process for our clients.  
• We also begin to think differently about career pathways. 
• We also begin to think differently about “passion.” 
• People need to expand their capabilities and interests, not make decisions on existing characteristics only.
• People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable.
• People need to be empowered to take action, not merely to be given a diagnosis.
• career counsellors need to play a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection. As such, they should promote client learning.
• Aligned with Chaos and Human Design Theory of planning a career in a changing economic or career environment 
• 100% predictability impossible; the system is dynamic (understanding changes in the world and in the person); The process of “planning and goal setting” began to change to being “planful”

Larry Cochran

Truth is discovered subjectively through dialogue rather than through objective testing. This approach emphasises the individual’s experience and decision making through exploring personal constructs and the client’s narrative about their life.

• Finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts
• Weaving our lives into a meaningful whole by integrating personal values into work
• Connecting family and work (negotiating roles and relationships)
• Valuing pluralism and inclusivity through cultural diversity
• Managing personal transitions and organizational change
• Exploring spirituality, purpose, and meaning

The career construction theory (Savickas, 2005) is built on Super’s theoretical framework with an additional focus on making meaning through a narrative approach. This theory goes beyond scores on assessments and encourages counselors to consider an individual’s story including their context, with whom they interact, and how they derive meaning. Key concepts around this theory include:

Self-construction: individuals develop from childhood where they first begin as actors, then agents, and finally authors of their lives and careers.

Life themes that guide career choices address why people make their career choice, what personality types might fit with a particular career, and how the individual can adapt to their career choice

RATHER, passion is a result of good life design, but not the source.   Passion comes AFTER a person has discovered something you like and have developed mastery.